Historical Background of Sociology
Origin
of Sociology:
The history of the present society
is very old but short. Therefore, it is one of the youngest as well as one of
the oldest of the social sciences. The present society and culture have passed
many ups and downs from the ancient time. Sociology, the science which studies
about society and its components, emerged only during the 19th century. The
study of social activities, interrelationship and social system up to this
period were included within other social sciences like political science,
population, psychology etc. thinkers and philosophers like Plato, Aristotle,
Manu, Kautilya etc. talked about social phenomenon but there was no separate
science to study about society. There was lack of the specific social sciences
as the complexity of the society increased. Republic, politics, Arthashastra,
the smriti and vanalects are supposed as ancient source of social thought, the
pure study of sociology was impossible. Therefore, to understand and study
about sociology, we must go through its ancient history. This science was
coined in 1838 by the father of sociology, Auguste Comte, to fulfill the lack
of a separate science to study about society and sociology. He claimed that it
would study about social relationship behavior activities and social structure.
Therefore, sociology has got a very long and step wise history.
1st
Stage
The first stage of sociological
development governs the period before A.D. there were no special thinkers
regarding sociology. The ideologies of the philosophers are important because
these were shared by the social thinkers later on. Regarding the role of the
western thinkers and philosophers, Plato and Aristotle are very important.
Plato (428 – 348
B.C)
Plato, in his republic, divided the
society into slaves, philosophers and warriors and talked about system of state
and stages. He supposed the whole society as a systematic and organized state.
He believed there is interrelationship between different organs of a society.
Aristotle (348 –
322 B.C)
Aristotle, in his “Ethics and
Politics”, supposed human beings as political and social beings. He talked
about different aspects of political system which is supposed as very important
aspect of society. It can be supposed as an important subject matter of the
study of sociology. Therefore, we being the student of sociology are linking it
as an important aspect of society.
The eastern philosophy also included
the concept of sociology in their religious books in the first stage of the
development of the society. Manu, in his “Manusmriti”, talked about religion,
culture, tradition, social norms and values etc of ancient society. Likewise,
Kautilya, in his “Economics”, talked about economic movement and social
activities of the ancient society.
Because of these social thinkers and
philosophers thought there was not the proper study of sociology but this stage
was supposed as the age for sowing seed for sociology.
2nd
Stage
The second stage of historical
development of sociology extends from 4th or 5th century. The time
boundary of this period appears very long. The bases for the sociology were
formed during this stage. The role of Saint Augustain (354 – 430) is very
important during this period. He analyzed the politics government, law of the
society and talked about the change of those states. He focused on the rules
systems and traditions of the society. His analysis was based on religion.
There were other Manu social thinkers after him. They were: Thomas Hotter
(1588- 1879), john Lock (1632- 1704), Montesquieu (1689 – 1755), Rousseau
(1712- 1778), Immanuel Kant (1724- 1804) who contributed for the development of
the study of sociology.
Hobbs
claimed that human does have sense and because of that it does social works and
the society functions. Lock talked about the freedom of human beings, their
life and the state. In his “Essay on Human Understanding”, he described about
different ideologies and functions that an individual of a society bears.
Montesquieu, in his “Spirits of Laws”, talked about the effects of government
and climate, trade, population, religion and laws. From the same, “Sociology of
Laws” developed in sociology. Likewise, Kont, Malthas etc. have important
contribution in sociology.
3rd
and Modern Stage
This stage is supposed as the last
and modern stage of the development of sociology. This stage is very important
not only because of the emergence of sociology but because of the development
of it throughout the world. During the same period, the four founding father of
sociology, Auguste Comte, Emile Durkeim, Herbert Spencer and Max Weber made the
foundations of sociology very strong. Other social thinkers like Marx, J.S.
Mill, Tonnies, Tateott parsons, R.K. Menon etc did sociological analysis
throughout 17th and 20th century. Some of the sociologists and their
contribution for the development of sociology are given below
Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857)
Auguste Comte was a French social
thinker. He is supposed as the father of sociology. He studied and analyzed the
effects of French Revolution. Industrial revolution and Renaissance and found
the lack of a social science that studied about society. Therefore, he coined
the term sociology in 1838 as a social science to study about society. He wrote
“Course de Philosophic Positive” (1830 – 1842) in which he coined the term
sociology and explained why and how sociology can be forwarded. He has put
forward some arguments for analyzing sociology.
Law
of Social Evolution
Comte
has divided the development of society into different three stages:
a)
Theological Stage: This is the first stage of the social
development. The society and all the components parts of it were simple and the
society was also very simple. The people at that time did not have much
analytical power. They believed on invisible power and divine force. There was
Fetishism (Soul) in the beginning of this stage and Polytheism (Many gods) and
monotheism later on were in practice
b) Metaphysical Stage: This stage was
more developed than the previous one. People started to believe that there was
abstract and invisible power which cannot be perceived with sense perception.
This stage was more reformed stage than the theological stage. They believed
there was no visible god but the god was ruling in form of invisible power.
There was somehow development of reasoning.
c) Positive Stage: This stage was
based on scientific analysis. Scientific perspective was developed and applied
for every event. According to Comte, cause of any action and effect for the
social action were studied according to scientific method. From the same
process the social system in the society was based.
Subject
matter of Sociology:
Comte claims that society is the
subject matter of sociology. It studies about the social structure, the process
and law of social function. Therefore, sociology is the science of social
system and development. He puts forward two important ideologies
a) Social
Static:
He claims that a society is the united and whole structure of different
permanent social units like family, marriage, Kinship, religious institutions,
politics, economic institutions etc. Therefore, while studying society one must
study about these sub-ports clearly as permanent and static units of a society.
b) Social
dynamics:
The social norms and values, laws, rules of society of the present are the
subject matter for the study of society. It focuses on the changing nature of
these institutions. The present society can be put under this because it has
the quality change with every unit of component parts of society. It focuses on
the changeable feature of social life and institutions. It talks about how it
changes.
Sociological
Method
Comte says that method to study
about society must be scientific. He was the first person to claim that the
sociological study must be scientific but not theological thought. He believes
if the method is scientific, the sociological research and study becomes
factual and based on reality. The structure of a society and its change can be
studied through this method. After that sociology became a scientific social
science. He talks about social facts too and says there are two types of facts.
Simple/general facts can be found in nay society but the complex facts are
related to concrete science.
Herbert
Spencer (1820 – 1903):
Herbert Spencer is a British social
thinker/theorist. He was the first evolutionist who developed Darwinian
evolutionism in the society. He not only applied evolutionism but also
structuralism in sociology. He assumed a society is a set of different parts.
He compared the society with a biological organism. It functions in the same
way as a biological organism does. He wrote many books regarding sociology.
Social static (1850) is his first book. Likewise, he wrote ‘Synthetic Philosophy’
and ‘Principle of Society.’
Herbert
Spencer and social organism:
Spencer proved biological organism
and the social system are the same. A society is completely organized on the
same system as an individual. It moves forward from simple to complex, equality
to inequality as in evolutionism. The process of change and development in the
society brings some social qualities. Because of the same there is change in
social structure and variation in social function.
Evolution
of the Society and emergence of the state
The
process of the evolution of the society has been divided into four stages:
i)
Hunting and gathering stage
ii)
Pastoral stage
iii)
Agrarian
IV)
Industrial stage
A society in the process of
development must pass all these stages. There appear complexity, functional
difference and complex structural units and development in the process.
Emergence
of State
Spencer
has talked about three levels of the emergence of state:
a) Military State: There were
different groups of people in different places and societies. They used to
fight with each other. Powerful groups attacked the weak one. There used to be
class and struggle with different groups. Then the groups started making
leaders and there was emergence of state. The leaders either became ruler or
the military general. They started making armies for the protection of their
countries. Then there appeared the military state ruled by military leaders
which was supposed to be the supreme. That state provided peace and security to
the people. There was lack of freedom. The state was not for an individual but
the individual was for the state.
b) Industrial State: The military
state, in the process of development, merged towards the development of
industries. At first, the state focused only on development. Gradually, later
on, the state provided freedom to the people.
c) Ethical State: After the
extreme development of industrial state, the ethical state is supposed to be in
existence. This stage is hypothetical. The ethical state will be under
domination of the negative effects of material development.
Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
Emile Durkheim was a French
sociological thinker. His ideology regarding social integration is described in
his “The Division of Labor” in society (1803). He talks about two types of
social integration in this book:
i) Organic Solidarity
ii) Mechanical Solidarity
There is division of labor through
these two processes, in the society. The ancient society was integrated
according to mechanical solidarity. There is division of labor on the basis of
race, religion, social norms and values, rituals and traditions. The structure
of society in mechanical solidarity appears as very simple.
The structure of the society
gradually becomes rigid and difficult in organic solidarity. There is
integration among people through division of labor. Law and constitution will
control the society. Every individual has perfection and specialization because
of division of labor. There will be lack of social control. An individual
cannot adjust himself to the new work. Therefore, he feels bored, loneliness,
harassed, etc. in the industrial society.
Max Weber
Max Weber was a German Theorist. He
developed micro analytical system in sociology. He also forced for the
scientific study of sociology like other pure sciences. He opines that social
action/works are practical works in sociology like practical test in lab. For
science…….. A person has interpretive understanding of social action; he/she
cannot understand sociology. Therefore, he claims to understand sociology, one
must understand the nature of social action/work which human does in the
society.
Prerequisites
of Social action/works
·
Present
social action/work is affected by the actions/works of the past, present and
future.
·
Social
action or work assumes that there is earlier presence of another person. An
individual or society is essential for social action/work.
·
Every
social action/works should be found out by the social actor.
Religion
and Social Change
His book “The Protestant ethics and
spirit of Capitalism” contains the religious moral to get economic income
increment in investment and earning more money. Therefore, capitalism
flourished in western countries. There is social change because of industrial
(Capitalism) development.
Weber
and Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is a network of organization
which is in operation according to the law. In another word it is a network
where there are posts, their rights, duties and limitations, the top, there is
a person who provides leadership and others can also hold the post if they have
capabilities. Therefore, Bureaucracy is an important part of social system.
Weber opines that because of the
complexity of society, there is lack of organization for smooth running of the
society. He is positive for the emergence if bureaucracy as the society becomes
complex. He believes that the emergence of the state is because of the
industrial development of the capitalism. The state needs manpower and the
system to regulate it, which is supposed as bureaucracy.
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